Proportion of Primary Drinking Water Source Locations among Households by Socio-Demographic Characteristics: Analysis of the 2023 Indonesian Health Survey (SKI)

Abstract

Introduction:Access to safe drinking water remains a key environmental health challenge in Indonesia, with persistent inequalities in household access despite national progress. The location of the primary drinking water source is a critical dimension of water safety, influencing exposure to contamination and health risks.
Objective: This study aimed to analyze the proportion of primary drinking water source locations among households by socio-demographic characteristics using data from the 2023 Indonesian Health Survey (SKI).

Methods: A cross-sectional analytical study was conducted using nationally representative secondary data from SKI 2023. The study included households with complete information on drinking water source location and socio-demographic characteristics. Descriptive and bivariate analyses were performed using survey weights to account for the complex sampling design.
Results: Marked socio-demographic disparities were observed. Households with higher education, formal employment, urban residence, and higher economic status were more likely to have drinking water sources located inside the house, whereas households with lower education, informal occupations, rural residence, and lower economic status showed greater reliance on sources located outside the household compound. A clear gradient was evident across education and economic status categories.

Conclusion: Significant inequalities in household drinking water source locations persist in Indonesia. These findings highlight the need for equity-oriented water and environmental health policies that prioritize disadvantaged populations to ensure safe and sustainable access to drinking water.