Spatial Distribution and Risk Assessment of Microbiological Contamination in Drinking Water Depots Based on Sanitary Hygiene Conditions

Abstract

Introduction: Microbiological contamination of drinking water remains a major environmental health concern, particularly in decentralized water supply systems such as refill drinking water depots. Poor sanitary hygiene practices during water treatment, handling, and distribution can increase the risk of fecal contamination and subsequent waterborne diseases.

Objective: This study aimed to analyze the spatial distribution and assess the risk of microbiological contamination in refill drinking water depots based on sanitary hygiene conditions

Method: An observational cross-sectional study with a spatial analytical approach was conducted in Makassar, Indonesia. Drinking water samples were collected from refill drinking water depots and analyzed for Escherichia coli and total coliforms using standard microbiological methods. Sanitary hygiene conditions were assessed using a structured inspection checklist and categorized into risk levels. Geographic coordinates of depots were recorded and analyzed using geographic information system software. Spatial autocorrelation was examined using Global Moran’s I, and hotspot analysis was performed using the Getis–Ord Gi* statistic. Logistic regression analysis was applied to examine the association between sanitary hygiene risk and microbiological contamination.

Result: A total of 120 refill drinking water depots were included in the analysis. Overall, 39.2% of drinking water samples were microbiologically contaminated. The prevalence of contamination increased with higher sanitary hygiene risk levels. Depots classified as high sanitary risk had a significantly higher likelihood of contamination compared to low-risk depots. Spatial analysis revealed significant clustering of contaminated depots, with distinct high-risk hotspots identified in densely populated areas with limited access to piped water supply.

Conclusion: Microbiological contamination of refill drinking water depots is strongly associated with sanitary hygiene conditions and exhibits clear spatial clustering patterns. Integrating sanitary hygiene assessment with spatial analysis provides valuable insights for identifying high-risk areas and prioritizing environmental health interventions.